How a boy life affected when raised without a father Essay

Both Wes Moore’s grew up without their fathers in their lives. Wes Moore’s father was taken away from him at an early age due to illness. His father had acute epiglottitis. Until the death of Wes Moore he had a close relationship. While The Other Wes Moore’s father choice to be absent from his child’s life. In the book we read that he tried to see The Other Wes Moore one night, drunk and pound on his mother’s door demanding to see Wes, but after not given access inside he vanished from Wes’s life. Studies show that â€Å"children with fathers at home tend to do better in school, are less prone to depression and are more successful in relationships. Children from one-parent families achieve less and get into trouble more than children from two parent families.† Both children were forced to learn a lot at a young age and in a way became the men of their households, in their father’s absences. Although because of the difference in their losses of their father’s the affects differed. The death of a parent can really damage a child. At times it can change just about everything about the child its future, its personality, its beliefs, its fears, its cravings, and how the child perceives the world itself. Death can traumatize anyone, but it is even more traumatic for a 6 year old boy. In the case of the other Wes Moore that had the father that didn’t choice not to take part in his child’s life it differs in the affects. Another study showed that 1,197 fourth-grade students were observed researchers that concluded the children that grew up without t â€Å"greater levels of aggression in boys from mother-only households than from boys in mother-father households.† This brings me to the assumption that because of The Other Wes Moore choice to go down the wrong path due to the circumstances that had been placed in his life. He was only bound to go down the wrong path because he had never had a good father figure or father in his life, while Wes Moore on the other hand had that. Wes Moore only had his father in his life for a short time period but yet a still he had his father in life while The Other Wes Moore never did. â€Å"Statistics have been quoted that the percentage of father absence homes is  as high as 60%. However, these statistics do not reflect the number of fathers who are physically present in the homes but maybe emotionally, psychologically or spiritually absent.† Which show’s me that there are a lot of young men in the world being raised with a father, and I am certain all of them are not in prison either. Though the author in â€Å"The Other Wes Moore† believes that he is â€Å"lucky†, one would not refer to his accomplishments as luck. Both Wes Moore’s’ were given various chances, to go to school, continue on with their education, and get a job to support their families. Although their stories were very similar by not having their fathers in their lives, or good males figure to guide them and raise them to be â€Å"men† they choice different paths in life. I believe that life is all about the choices you make for yourself. Regardless of who is there to guide you. Yes, it may be harder to grow up fast and lead yourself down the right path. But all is possible; so luck really did not have much of a part to in the author’s life. Wes Moore (the author) choice to make chances in his life for the better, he wanted better for himself and fought for it; while The Other Wes Moore didn’t. In some situations you are given many chances, others you are only given one. I feel as if smart, thought out decisions are more beneficial for me than fast decision where I haven’t thought about the repercussions for my action. Therefore, I believe if I were in either of the Wes Moore’s places I would have looked at life and made the decision the author made rather than The Other Wes Moore. In life we are given more than just luck, but an opportunity, a chance to be better and do better each and every day. It is up to one to take those chances. In their situations, it was obvious that they were looking for more than just â€Å"luck† at the time, school was not at the top of their to do list, working day and night at a job getting paid minimum wage wasn’t either. What’s amazing about this story is their lives could have easily been the same, both successful men with stories to share with the world, together. Or both behind bars for the rest of their lives, perhaps even cell mates with it being ironic of them both having the same first and last name as well as them heading down the same path at such a young age. Simply knowing the right from the wrong, even when times are hard. To make the right decision and take the right opportunity. Works Cited â€Å"Statistics of a Fatherless America.† _dads4kids.com._ Photius Coutsoukis, Copyright  © 1995-2002. Web. Revised 20-Jul-02. . N. Vaden-Kierman, N. Ialongo, J. Pearson, and S. Kellam, â€Å"Household Family Structure and Children’s Aggressive Behavior: A Longitudinal Study of Urban Elementary School Children,† _Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology_ 23, no. 5 (1995). _One Parent Families and Their Children: The School’s Most Significant Minority,_ conducted by The Consortium for the Study of School Needs of Children from One Parent Families, co sponsored by the National Association of Elementary School Principals and the Institute for Development of Educational Activities, a division of the Charles F. Kettering Foundation, Arlington, VA., 1980

Gary Becker’s Contribution to Family Economics

Gary Becker’s research on economics has also been his life’s work and garnered him the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1992 for â€Å"having extended the domain of the microeconomic Analysis to a wide range of human behavior and interactions, including non-market behavior. † (Federal, p. 1).Becker’s entire life has been spent taking the typical economic approach and extending it to a wider range of social issues. In addition to sheer monetary issues, Becker goes further and shows that individuals, contrary to widely held belief do not operate solely under financial gain and, in fact can show great acts of altruism as well.It has been said that Becker’s analysis should perhaps be known as the theory of rational choice, or purposeful behavior rather than simply as the straight economic approach generally seen. (The Prize p. 1). Becker himself notes that economic analysis can be applied to many issues in our daily social lives, other than the ones we tradi tionally believe to be strictly â€Å"economic. † He further states that â€Å"the horizons of economics need to be expanded. Economists can talk not only about the demand for cars, but also about matters such as the family, discrimination, and religion, and about prejudice, guilt and love.† (Religion p. 1). He very staunchly states that economic imperialism is not the same thing at all as crude materialism and that the idea that the total of a person’s value lies in their material worth has more in common with Marxist analysis than his own. (Religion p. 1). Robert Pollack, a self-stated critic of Becker’s concedes that he is really more of a follower of Becker’s than a critic, and that in all reality Becker put the family on the economic professions research agenda. (Pollack p. 5). The economics of the family is a creation of Gary Becker, and exhibits incredible significance in our lives today. B.Objectives/Hypotheses/Position Becker calls the for m of interdependent preferences within the family â€Å"altruism. † These preferences are introduced by supposing that one spouse is egoistic, while the other is altruistic, or cares both about his or her own consumption as well as the spouse’s utility. Pollack argues that rather than altruistic, the word should be known as â€Å"deferential,† as it is much more descriptive, denoting that, for instance the husband defers to his wife’s preferences regarding her consumption pattern. (Pollack pg. 12). Regardless of the terminology used, we can take Pollack’s model for explanation.Family members often have non-deferential preferences wherein each spouse cares about each other’s consumption habits either instead of or in addition to caring about their own. For the laymen, Pollack lays out Becker’s theory even simpler: A wife may have non-deferential preferences in that she wants her husband to spend more time jogging â€Å"because it†™s good for him,† and less time watching TV. In other words, non-deferential preferences tend to mean that each spouse prefers a different consumption patter for the other spouse, than the other spouse would choose for him/herself. (Pollack p. 14).Becker would state that the altruist, or deferential partner does not give anymore weight to his own well-being or self-interests than he gives to any other family member. Becker typically allows that the head of the household is regarded as an altruistic agent of the interests of all family members. (Pollack p. 14). Martha Nussbaum, a philosopher, finds this theory to be full of holes. Because the typical head of the household is male, Nussbaum feels that Becker’s theory becomes flawed as â€Å"males are often neglectful of the interests of females, whether wives or children, and makes decisions inimical to those interests.† (Pollack p. 14). Whether or not you agree with Nussbaum that the typical male head of househo ld is far from altruistic, or deferential, I think we can all agree that in theory there is generally one altruistic or deferential spouse in a relationship, along with the other who is the non-deferential spouse, or is more concerned with their own financial issues than of those of their spouse. Becker’s deferential preferences as related to parents and children would state that parents were not only concerned with their children’s utilities, but with their consumption patterns as well.In other words, while parents might be willing to pay for college, or perhaps a down payment on their children’s first house, they will be much less inclined to pay for a Hummer, or a trip to Europe. (Pollack p. 16). So the deferential model has parents willing to fund the â€Å"necessities† of life, such as education or a roof over their children’s heads, but are much less likely to want to pay for the frills. C. Methodology Becker’s household production mod el theorizes that households â€Å"combine both time and market goods to produce more basic commodities that directly enter their utility functions.† (Pollack p. 16). This is, of course, based on the assumed absence of joint production in the family as well as the assumed observability and measurability of commodities. Becker denotes â€Å"commodity shadow prices† in his household production model, which is the ratio at which a household can transform one commodity into another. All time and market goods that produce more basic commodities means treating all household functions as commodities. Therefore, time spent cooking, time spent cleaning, time spent helping children with homework all become commodities.Please note, that Becker defines commodities as anything that is observable or measurable, therefore in his model, time spent watching a pay with the children, sleeping, or listening to music is measurable, while stating these same things differently, such as †Å"music appreciation,† makes them unable to be measured or observed. So, the same activity, stated differently might or might not be a commodity. (Pollack p. 19). Becker’s altruistic model in the context of family consisted of a â€Å"brood of egoistic but rational â€Å"kids† and one deferential or altruistic parent.In his â€Å"Rotten Kid Theorem,† Becker notes that â€Å"Each beneficiary, no matter how selfish, maximizes the family income of his benefactor and thereby internalizes all effects of his actions on other beneficiaries. † (Pollack p. 21). Becker frequently uses the wife in the family model as the Rotten Kid, and Pollack’s example is that an altruist (or his selfish beneficiary) would eat with his fingers only when its value to him exceeds the value of the disgust suffered by another family member, or the altruist would read in bed late at night only when its value to him far exceeds the loss of sleep suffered by his spouse.(Pol lack p. 21). D. Innovating Aspects of Paper Becker basically looked upon the family, or the household as a miniature factory which produced services for the members of the household, â€Å"with an input of time and purchased consumer goods, the latter being regarded as intermediate inputs in the production process taking place in the household. † (The Prize p. 1). In this particular context, then, a wage rise can lead to less time-consuming production of services within the household.In other words, the father’s increase in pay might well enable the mother to hire a maid to help with the household chores, thereby freeing up more of her own time for the children or for leisure activities. In a really innovative step, Becker also applied his economic family theories to the area of crime and punishment, making the assumption that except for a certain number of true psychopaths, â€Å"individuals who behave criminally react in predictable ways to different stimuli in the form of benefits and the costs of criminal activities.† (The Prize p. 2). This theory would then offer fairly solid predictions about which groups of citizens could reasonably be expected to commit which types of crime. Studies on this subject have shown that an increase in the probability of being convicted at all is more a deterrent to the would-be criminal than the expectation of a certain level of harshness of punishment. (The Prize, pg. 2). D. Brief Critical Literature Survey Another famous book of Gary Becker’s is entitled â€Å"The Economics ofDiscrimination. † The theory of this book is that discrimination carries certain costs. For example, let’s assume that a certain businessman doesn’t like hiring women, or blacks, or any specific group, for that matter. In our present day highly competitive marketplace this businessman must then bear the cost of his particular discrimination. If he hires a high-wage white worker as opposed to an equally productive but lower-wage female worker, he has then foregone profits that could accrue to his firm.Although he may still decide to discriminate based on his strong feelings about one group or another, essentially the stronger his prejudices, the higher the cost. Although in some situations these costs might be hidden, and even though a competitive market will never completely eliminate discrimination, the market will, in itself, tend to reduce discrimination purely because the company that discriminates must pay the monetary costs associated with discrimination. (Economic p. 3).Becker also discusses Richard Epstein’s book, â€Å"Forbidden Grounds,† calling it a very â€Å"thoughtful book, which raises good questions. † (Economic p. 3). Epstein stresses the difficulties in implementing civil rights legislation, stressing the huge gap between the promise and the practice; Becker agrees with Epstein’s conclusion that there should be no civil rights legislat ion. (Economic p. 4). II. Analysis A. Hypotheses/Model Becker believes his model of household production puts economics into a simpler form that can be more easily understood by the general public.In fact, the American people as a whole tend to be frightened by economics, to the point, Becker says, that when you mention you are an economist, the typical response is that people say they took an economics class in college and either hated it or were terrible at it, or both. Becker believes that we should relax over the whole issue of economics, and that economists should attempt to express economic concepts in simple language, and detail the solving of economics in a straightforward, simple way. (Federal, p. 6).Becker continues by saying that many intellectuals and economists use big words and obscure language when they are writing about economics. â€Å"Sometimes it is a way of disguising that they are not saying a heck of a lot. Of course, some propositions are tougher to express. † (Federal p. 6). The challenge to a writer of economics, or any subject considered by the average person to be difficult, is to give a reasonably intelligent person a feel for the basics, and let their own intellect take it from that point. B. Analytical Discussion of Topic/Model In an interview with Gary Becker, he was asked if it was a true story that the initialInspiration for his work on the economics of crime was found while searching for a parking spot, and he agrees, â€Å"True story. † As he tells the story, he was coming down to Columbus University for an oral exam. He was to ask students a half-hour’s worth of questions on price theory. Becker was living in the suburbs at the time and drove to Columbia. He was running a bit late—never a good thing in New York City with parking spaces at such a premium. Because in those days Columbia had no designated parking for their faculty members, the choice was to either park illegally or go into a parking lot.Realizing how late he was, Becker pondered on the two choices, mentally calculating his chances of getting caught if he parked illegally versus parking a couple of blocks away which would entail a longer walk, as well as costing money. As Becker walked to the exam—a walk that took about ten minutes—he suddenly realized that if he was thinking about his chances of getting caught while parked illegally, that in all likelihood, the police were thinking about the same thing. They must, if they were rational human beings, be thinking about the likelihood of catching someone who was illegally parked.When Becker reached his student’s oral exam, the first question he presented was the one he had been pondering, and while he remembers the student didn’t do to well with an answer, Becker realized what an interesting topic it was, and started working seriously on it from that point out. Becker states that â€Å"I set it up so that society was trying to minimize the expected loss from criminals, taking account of the damage done by the crime, cost of policing, cost of taking somebody to trial, cost of punishment, how much deterrence there would be if criminals expected greater punishment or lesser punishment and so on.† (Federal p. 2). In the end, Becker was grateful to his parking problem, as it led him to one of his most â€Å"famous† theories of crime and economics. C. Theoretical Analysis Gary Becker was a great believer that family law would be a good area in which to do more law and economics work. He notes that family law is often looked down on in law school, not being a field that â€Å"top† people should consider going into, yet the family is such an important institution in society, that family law should certainly garner more respect from the legal industry.Families have been ever-changing, particularly in the last few decades, and now there are more and more areas of family law such as divorce, fertility, c hild care, homosexual marriages, homosexual parenting, marriage contracts, custody provision†¦the list goes on and on. Therefore Becker finds family law an area of great interest, ready to have more law students making it their specialty. Becker feels that family law is clearly one area that can have much more done with it using the tools of laws and economics. (Federal p. 3). D. Experts’ Insights and FindingsPollack finds Becker’s earlier talked about altruistic model as an â€Å"ultimatum game. † Pollack’s example is that the first player, or the proposer, offers a division of a fixed sum of money between himself and the second player. The second player, or the responder, is informed of the proposed division, and must then choose between two alternatives which are: †¢ She can accept the proposed division, in which case both players receive the proposed payoffs, or †¢ She can reject the proposed division, in which case both players receive exactly nothing.Therefore, Pollack reasons, the ultimatum game is a one-shot non-cooperative game in which the â€Å"proposer moves first and confronts the potential recipient with a take it or leave it offer. Commitment is essential to ultimatum games—if the responder rejects the offer, the game ends; the proposer cannot improve his offer. † (Pollack p. 24). E. Regressions/Correlation Analysis/data/tables To relate the above ultimatum game to Becker’s altruistic model, consider the game in which the proposer and the responder divide a fixed sum of money. Further consider that the proposer has egoistic tendencies.Therefore, the proposer offers a division in which he gets the entire sum, and the responder accepts, because she can do no better. If, on the other hand the proposer cares about the responder’s utility, then the proposer is going to offer a division that benefits the responder above himself. F. Findings/Arguments/Evidence The take it or leave i t family ultimatum game provides â€Å"a model in which all Becker’s claims about efficiency, distribution, and family demand functions hold. The altruist attains his most preferred feasible point, subject to the constraint that others receive enough to remain in the family. † (Pollack p. 25).G. Statistical Data/Tables â€Å"Empirical work on pooling began with articles by Duncan Thomas and T. Paul Schultz. † (Pollack p. 33). Thomas showed that kids do better in terms of mortality and morbidity when their mothers control a larger fraction of the family resources. Beck’s alternative theory to this assumption is the â€Å"better mothers† story, or the fact that mothers with more energy and ability are more likely to control a larger fraction of family nonlabor resources, and thus to have kids who do better. Thomas and Shultz, however, do not observe energy or ability. III. Policy Findings and Conclusions A. Basic Findings/SummaryAccording to Pollack, Becker’s economic approach to the family is often believed to imply that certain types of government policies cannot and do not affect allocation within families because they â€Å"will be fully neutralized by individuals’ responses. † (Pollack, p. 39). Both Becker’s altruist model and Rotten Kid Theorem imply that which parent receives the child benefit must be irrelevant, however Pollack feels that the conclusion that parents will neutralize the child benefit â€Å"depends on the assumption that family collective choice is determined by the altruist model, and that preferences exhibit transferable utility.† (Pollack p. 40). B. Policy Recommendations from your findings The role of technology and its place in facilitating the ability of human capital is both critical and important in today’s world. Becker felt that modern economies depend on modern technology, and you can’t have one without the other. Additionally, these various tech nologies are generally produced by people who have lots of human capital. Without that human capital there would not be the opportunity to build and make effective use of technology.Lastly, according to Becker, these new technologies are going to significantly impact the acquiring of this capital. People are beginning to use the various forms of technology to work at home, or earn degrees at home, thereby reducing the cost of gathering many people under one roof. (Manville, p. 3). The possibilities of the new technologies, along with the specific economics of these same technologies offer incredible opportunities for our future. C. Limitations of your study The limitations of the study on Gary Becker’s contributions to Family Economicsexist only in the capacity to devote enough information to each subject in the required amount of space. D. Suggestions for Future Research Reading Gary Becker’s â€Å"Human Capital and Poverty Alleviation† would be my number one s uggestion for future research. Becker believes that the main purpose of economics is to both understand and help alleviate poverty and this issue seems to be one that requires further investigation and study. IV. References: A. Scholarly Books/Journal Articles Pollak, Robert A. 2002. Gary Becker’s Contributions to Family and Household Economics.National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, MA 02138, October 2002. B. WWW. References Becker, Gary S. December 16, 1994. Human Capital and Poverty Alleviation. http://www. worldbank. org/html/extdr/hnp/hddflash/workp/wp_00052. (Accessed June 17, 2006). Becker Honored with Phoenix Prize. April 23, 2001. Economist Wins Prize for Contributions to Social Sciences. http://www. chibus. com/media/storage/paper408/news/2001/04/23/GsbNe ws/Becker. Honor (Accessed June 13, 2006). Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. June, 2002. Interview with Gary Becker. http://minneapolisfed.org/pubs/region/02-06/becker. cfm (Accessed June 15, 2006). Man ville, Brook. 1994. Talking Human Capital with Professor Gary S. Becker, Nobel Laureate. http://www. linezine. com/7. 1/interviews/gbbmthc. htm (Accessed June 12, 2006). Religion and Liberty. March and April 1993. Economic Imperialism. http://www. acton. org/publicat/randl/print_interview. php? id=76 (Accessed June 13, 2006). The Prize in Economic Sciences 1992. The Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1992. http://www. nobelprize. org/economics/laureates/1992/presentation-speech(Accessed June 12, 2006). V. Appendix A. Mathematical/statistical elaboration There was little mathematical elaboration in the sources I used, although Pollack used a specific mathematical equation to explain Becker’s household production model. B. Data Data used consisted of both Gary Becker’s writings and interviews as well as the views of other professionals regarding his conclusions. C. Results The results of this paper are to explore Becker’s theories of economics and present the results in a format that is hopefully more easily read by the laymen.

Union Demands Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Union Demands - Essay Example Union Demands In the apartment building the supervisor, Larry Melton, was very mad that the employees were interested in forming a union. Mr. Melton began a behavioral pattern that was hurting the employees because he was making inquiries to several employees about the dealings of the union with the janitorial workers. Larry Melton was harassing the employees by calling them at home with questions about the affairs of the union. Larry did not have the right to call the employees after labor hours and ask them about things that occurred outside the workplace. He was violating both the trust of the employees and their privacy. Some of the claims of wrongdoing by the union in regards to the actions of the company included: Repeatedly interrogating employees about union activities. Threats of reducing of benefits. Threatening the employees for refusal to reveal the identities of who attended the union meetings. Forcing employees to reveal the nature of the private union meetings. Making employees offe rs of better medical benefits if they fail to join the union. In my opinion the majority of the claims made by the union were true. Larry Melton acted in an unethical manner in regards to the union activity with the janitorial workers. He pushed the employees to tell him information that they did not have to reveal. His actions constituted harassment. The company realized that Larry Melton acted wrongly and in order to protect the firm the company decided to terminate his employment contract. One of the arguments of the company was that they were not aware of the behavior of Larry Melton and that his actions were not sponsored by the company.

The Politics of Pacific Northwest Research Paper

The Politics of Pacific Northwest - Research Paper Example They include artifacts; collect art and primary sources so that the young generations can pass the traditions as recommended. The collections which are more than 68,000 objects from fine art and material culture from the America, Europe, and Asia are preserved to make sure that the young generation will have a chance to see and follow the traditions. Regional history includes the exploration, settlement, economic among others that the individual are required to follow. Many regions have relative liberal abortion laws, gender equality laws; others encourage the use of marijuana and other rights concerning the individuals. British Columbia has legal law that allows for gay marriage which was passed in 2003 while for Washington was legalized in 2001, the Oregon allows for same sex marriage this is because the urban size and voting impact has a lead and this make it easier for the passing of laws without any problem (Dublin 36). The region has a long history of political radicalism which means that general strike would be engaged thus combination of communes and socialist and thus an influence in the region. Every human being has right to life and that’s why the government has been fighting with terrorists. The region is productive in terms of economic since it has a long history involving the starting of cooperative and communal businesses and organizations. The Puget Sound has a history of publicly owned power utilities and thus some of the states that are around have public utilities that are personal. As a result they enjoy the lowest electrical power rates in the whole of the continent.

Macro econoics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Macro econoics - Essay Example Local small business owners will also be happy because it will attract tourists. These tourists will play a significant role in increasing the sales of small business owners and therefore they will appreciate the plans for rebuilding World Trade Center. Rich landowners will also benefit from the rebuilding of World Trade Center because it will increase the property prices of the whole area. Especially land which is near the World Trade Center will become extremely valuable and therefore rich landowners will benefit from World Trade Center. Property prices of commercial areas in the region will also go up because many businesses will end up in the region. World Trade Center was a business hub which was why it was so famous and many businesses operated in the region. This makes property extremely attractive from the commercial point of view and therefore rich landowners will benefit greatly from the rebuilding of World Trade Center. Labor unions will also be happy because rebuilding of World Trade Center will generate employment. The building of World Trade Center will require services of all kinds of labor and therefore employment opportunities will be immense. Also after the rebuilding of World Trade Center hiring will increase in the region which will again benefit the labor unions significantly. The current situation employment in the country is not very good and therefore plans for rebuilding of World Trade Center will be taken with great joy by the labor unions of the region. Former residents would also like the plans for rebuilding of World Trade Center because it will allow them to restart their operations. Former residents will also hope that they will get office space in the new World Trade Center on concessional rates. Also it is important for a business to locate itself in a geographical location that benefits its business interests. Former residents had established their business in the World Trade Center and therefore would like to continue

Cold War and American Contribution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

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Children - Essay Example The question now arises that ‘what leads the children to divert from the society’s well treaded path?’ Is it because of the dramatically changing world? Or is because of the free media showing what ever it wants? Children have impressionable minds. From an early age they observe and remember what goes on around them. Sounds and pictures are the two main senses that mould the character of the child from an early stage. Of course the parents and the environment also mould the child’s character, but pictures in television and music are the main contributors to the development of a child in these modern times. [3] The Language The language used for most children targeted channels is getting more and more open. The cartoons like Johnny Bravo among others create that urge among children to attempt or copy the same styles irrespective to which society they belong to. Kid’s drama series show either love or violence which the children are apt to imitate in one form or the other. [2] The article ‘childish thongs’ that appeared in the guardian on Monday March 31st 2003 is also highlighting the points mentioned above. The language in the article is very strict and has a tone of anger complaining about the plight of children as a result of unchecked companies that propagate sex appeal in their products. The article does not blame the children for wearing garments that increase their sex appeal since children are immature and do not understand what they are getting involved in. [1] The Media The ideas about a certain thing are bred in to children from a variety of sources such as TV and movies. Children at their young ages watch and hear the pictures and sounds of the glamorous world which attracts them to follow the lead. This is the magic of the media. Showing explicit or obscene images on TV loosens the devil out of a child's heart and makes the child act in certain manners unacceptable to the society. [4] Music and TV artists like Britney Spears appearing in music videos wearing minimum clothing allowed on TV only appeals to the audience. The viewers world over go wild as the men drool over the sex-appeal involved while the women enact Britney Spears in order to get the same attention from the men. The children watching the video think dressing that way would get them rich and famous and get the desired attention. However these dreams are not always pretty in the real life. The increasing rape cases, sexual harassment and child pornography are some of the results of this trend towards wearing minimum clothes. [1] The role of the media in reaching to this trend is almost 100%. The cultures of one side of the world are shown on the other side, meaning that cultural clashes are bound to occur. Media is free to show whatever they want or tell whatever they want to and when ever there is a ban them, the media come up in arms cursing the government for not giving them media-freedom. Being the leaders of tomorrow, children getting involved in devilish acts can mark our world heading for chaos. Sanity must prevail within media channels to encourage dignity and self respect in children rather than propagating dangerous deeds against the boundaries of the society. [4] The media must aim to show images, documentaries or videos that give a meaning or a moral that the children can learn. Through articles like these, the parents of the children can be given a heads-up warning that their children involved in

Communication in Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Communication in Economics - Essay Example And in the case of county, residents will only pay fund if they are, loyal to, or satisfied with the performance of county administration. In the case of small number of county’s residents, the county administration can have close contact with them. It can address to there problems carefully and can redress them if it thinks them legal. Due to better understanding between a resident and administration the chance of resident’s disloyalty and disappointment are reduced. Another advantage is that county administration can more easily deal with a problem than in the case of a large sized county. For example if a problem of water occurs in county, a small sized county can better deal with this problem due to its small size than a large county. Secondly, as the county’s population increases another question about providing amenities like water, security, gas etc. is also raised that is, will the county administration be able to provide these services to the residents in return of taxes e.g. property tax, paid by the residents. In this case if the size of county increases it will be very difficult for county administration to fairly administrate the system of taxation. 2. If the proposal is accepted then how county board will provide necessary services e.g. water etc., in return of taxes and funds paid by residents. As county already lacks sufficient water to support such a population increase. In this situation, how it would be possible for county board to raise sufficient funds for wanted projects. So according to my opinion it will not be adequate to permit the investors unless the county board becomes able to manage such a population change in a well-organized manner. Or on the other hand if county board still wants to permit investor for fund raising for their planned projects, then, at the least, board should permit investors to build only one housing development so that the county’s

A for Alienation Essay Example for Free

A for Alienation Essay Alienation is a common theme in all writing; however, in The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, never has alienation been so vividly accounted. The Scarlet Letter is a story about Hester Prynne, a woman who commits adultery against her husband named Roger Chillingworth, with the local reverend named Arthur Dimmesdale; the result is a strange child named Pearl. The plot thickens as the mistress and the reverend strive to keep their sin a secret, and as Chillingworth appears back in town hiding his true identity; it climaxes on a scaffold where all secrets are revealed. Alienation is a heavy theme throughout the book, and it adds an incredible twist to see its affect on the characters. Alienation is portrayed through symbols, behavior, and drama with Hester, Pearl and Dimmesdale. Each character is associated with an important symbol that sets them apart from society. They also each deal with their alienation in different ways with different behaviors, and they are treated differently by society causing drama. In the end, some can deal being outcasts from society, but some cannot. Hester, the main character of the book, is most evidently alienated from society for her sin. The most important symbol in the book, the embroidered A on her bosom, sewed on as punishment for adultery, is also a symbol for alienation. She is different from all of society because of that mark, and can never live a normal life because of it. Let her cover the mark as she will, the pang of it will be always in her heart, (38), said a townsperson at first sight of the scarlet letter. As seen in this quote, society will always look at the scarlet letter as a wall between themselves and Hester. Hesters behavior shows how greatly she is affected by her alienation. Lonely as was Hesters situation and without a friend on earth who dared to she herself, she, however, incurred no risk of want, (57); in this quote one sees how being alienated from society can cause a person to become an introvert and become a lifeless body as Hester had become. There is a lot of drama surrounding Hester; all of society looks at Hester in shame. This complete shun from society drives Hester to live in an isolated cottage away from people. In this little, lonesome dwellingHester established herself with her infant child, (57). This particular dramatic  event alienated Hester geographically as well as socially. Hesters alienation also causes others to become alienated like her daughter and the one she has an affair with; however, Hester is most sharply alienated from all. Hesters daughter, Pearl, is also alienated from society. Her alienation has different circumstances, however, because she was born an alien, she did nothing wrong. Since she is the product of sin, many consider her a demon child with supernatural powers. For this reason, she herself is a symbol of her alienation; It [Pearl] was the scarlet letter in another form; the scarlet letter endowed with life! (70). She is compared to Hesters symbol of alienation, but she is a breathing, living form of the same symbol. She alienated herself and her mother from society. She is not your normal child, she acts very different; She [Hester] could recognize her [Pearl] wild, desperate, defiant, mood, the flightiness of her temper, and even some of the very cloud-shapes of gloom and despondency that had brooded in her heart, (63). In this description of Pearls behavior, we see a child that does not fit in your normal Puritan mold; she is a child filled of energy, character, and mischief. She finds a way to live a happy life regardless of being an outcast from society. Because of Pearls behavior and her mothers sin, lots of drama occurs around the possession of the child; Women it is thy bandage of shame! It is because of the stain which that letter indicates, that we would transfer thy child to other hands, (76). Here, Governor Bellingham is trying to take Pearl from her mother to give her a normal life in attempt to raise the child into your average, molded Puritan. Pearl is a free willed little girl who circumstantially is outcasted by society. Arthur Dimmesdale, the local reverend, is Pearls father; however, this is a secret kept from society and is revealed in the final scene. Dimmesdales secret guilt alienates him internally from everyone around him. His hidden sin is eating him alive while he continues to put a mask on and preach to society as if nothing is wrong. This hidden secret is symbolized in the book as an unknown marking on his chest over his heart. With a convulsive motion he tore away the ministerial band from before his breast. It was revealed!  (172); here, Dimmesdale reveals the markings on his chest to all of society and reveals his secret. This marking, weather it be a scarlet letter or not, is what symbolizes his alienation. It is an internal alienation from the outside world, and is not known by society until this moment. His behavior prior to this event should signs of a deep illness, not curable by any medicine. His nerve seemed absolutely destroyed. His moral force was abused into more than childish weakness, (109). Dimmesdale is weak in spirit and in health due to his extreme guilt alienating him from society. His behavior reflects his health which is in jeopardy due to his secret. This extreme pressure causes dramatic events to occur before the final climax. Walking in the shadow of a dream, as it were, and perhaps actually under the influence of a species of somnambulism, (101). The author here describes Dimmesdales journey to the scaffold one night; this night he can take the guilt no longer. It describes him to be in another world controlled by his guilt. He is alienated from all when he is in this frame of mind, and this can be seen through dramatic events such as this. Dimmesdales secret sin has caused his character to change considerably while alienating him for the rest of the town. The three aliens in this story have different types of alienation, and are under different circumstance too; nevertheless, the simple fact remains, they are alienated from their surroundings. Each character deals with their alienation a different way, and this is evident at the end of the story. Dimmesdale cannot take his inner guilt any longer and dies, Pearl fights through her problems to live a normal life, and Hester lives forever in her sin on her own. Through symbols, each characters behavior, and the drama occurring in their lives, alienation can be depicted with each character; however, the outcome of their alienation is governed only by the inner qualities of the character that the author has created. This reoccurring theme in literature has never taken a similar twist of outcomes, and it has brought interest, excitement, and meaning to the story.

Formation of an Alkene by Alcohol Dehydration Essay Example for Free

Formation of an Alkene by Alcohol Dehydration Essay Beer’s Law is an empirical relationship that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. In turn, absorbance is proportional to concentration and the higher the concentration, the higher the absorbance. This experiment incorporated Beer’s Law and is focused on determining the stress that various alcohols have on biological membranes. Using five solutions of differing alcohol concentration for each of the three alcohols; methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol and a small slice of beet, the stirred solution was placed into a plastic cuvette and then into a spectrophotometer and the absorbance of alcohol solutions were determined in order to conclude which alcohol and concentration of alcohol had the greatest effect on biological membranes. The results showed that the most non-polar of the alcohols being tested, 1-proponal, caused the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. INTRODUCTION The boundary between any cell and its environment is the plasma membrane, composed of a matrix of phospholipids molecules with many different kinds of proteins. Membranes have different properties and a variety of functions, in large part determined by the specific proteins within the membrane. The purpose of this experiment is to observe the effects of various alcohols on biological membranes, to determine the stress that various alcohols have on biological membranes and to conclude which concentration of alcohol has the greatest effect on biological membranes. The central plant vacuole of plant cells contains water and solutes, including water-soluble pigments. Its membrane, the tonoplast, is normally poorly permeable to water. The central plant vacuole of the root cells of beet contains a water-soluble red pigment, betacyanin, which gives the beet its characteristic color. Since the pigment is water-soluble and not lipid soluble, it remains in the vacuole when cells are healthy. If the tonoplast and the plasma membrane are damaged, the vacuole’s contents will leak out into the surrounding environment. Membrane disruption generally occurs when the cell is dead. Methanol, ethanol and 1-propanol are very similar alcohols, differing only in the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms within the molecule. One possible reason why these alcohols are so toxic to living organisms is that they might damage membranes. The polarity of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol comes from the OH group where the electrons are affected. The longer the R group the less the attraction. If 1-propanol is the most non-polar alcohol of the alcohols being tested, then 1-proponol will cause the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. The effect of three different alcohols, methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol, were tested on the beet vacuole membranes in this experiment. A measure of absorbance was collected using a conductivity probe. If a beet cell’s vacuole membrane (the tonoplast) was damaged, the red pigment, betacyanin, leaked out of the cell. The more red pigment that leaked out into the surrounding environment and the more intense the pigment, the greater the absorbance and the amount of cellular damage sustained by the beet. RESULTS The absorbance of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol were collected after the alcohol solutions of differing concentrations were placed in the plastic cuvette and then into the spectrophotometer. The absorbance of methanol, ethanol, and 1-proponal followed a general trend; the absorbance of the alcohol increased in relation to the rise in concentration of each alcohol solution. Figure 1. The graph depicts five solution of differing alcohol concentrations for each of the three alcohols; methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol. The alcohol with the highest measurement of absorbance was the non-polar 1-proponal. (Figure 1) DISCUSSION The results (Figure 1), in general, support the original hypothesis that if 1-propanol is the most non-polar alcohol of the alcohols being tested, then 1-proponol will cause the greatest damage to the biological membrane, the beet cell’s vacuole. Hence, 1-proponal had the highest absorbance. The polarity of methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol comes from the OH group, where the electrons are effected. The longer the R group the less the attraction between the molecules. In turn, methanol, ethanol, and 1-propanol are arranged from most polar to non-polar. At concentrations of 20% methanol, 10% and 20% ethanol, and 20% 1-propanol, the absorbance did not follow the general trend of data. This is due to sources of error in this experiment. There proved to have many sources of error in this experiment given the data gathered in this study and the evidence to this point. Sources of error include the size and surface area of the beat, cross contamination, and puncturing the beet during the stirring of solution. If the size and surface area of the beet slices were not uniform, bigger slices of beets had the potential to secrete a larger quantity of red pigment and a greater intensity in color in turn, increasing the absorbance. If the alcohol solutions were not stirred in order from lowest concentration to highest concentration, cross contamination would have occurred. If lower concentrations of alcohol are diluted with higher concentrations of alcohol, the absorbance of the lower concentration of alcohol will increase. If the beet was punctured during the stirring process, a greater amount of red pigment leaked out into the surrounding environment and in turn, the absorbance is increased. Beer’s Law is an empirical relationship that relates the absorption of light to the properties of the material through which the light is travelling. Beer’s Law is represented as A = ? bc (1) Where A is equal to the absorbance, ? is equal to the molar absorbtivity, b is equal to path length, and c is equal to concentration. In turn, absorbance is proportional to concentration and the higher the concentration of the red pigment that leaks out into the surrounding environment, the higher the absorbance of the alcohol.

Socialization Leads To Identity Formation

Socialization Leads To Identity Formation What is socialization? Socialization is the process in which human beings interact with each other individually and in groups. It is the process by which one learns the traditions, customs and accepted behaviour in any given society. It is not a onetime process, but it is a lifelong process that provides individuals with skills, values and attitudes that are necessary for interacting with the society. Human beings need social experiences to learn their culture and survive in the society. They are not born with values and skills. They learn from what they see, hear and experience throughout their life. They have the capability to learn and absorb from what they see around them. Socialization is not a just a simple term that can be seen at face value. It has many layers, and each layer is different from the other and leads to different processes and situations. Socialization has three layers; primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary is what we learn from our family and when we are youn g, secondary is what we learn in school, and tertiary is what we learn throughout our lives. We now know what socialization means, but what is identity? Identity is what makes an individual who he really is and what his purpose in life is. It is what makes an individual definable and recognizable. It is who you are and where you come from and what makes you unique from every other human being. It gives an individual a sense of being. Identity can be defined as individuality, personality, distinctiveness or uniqueness that makes an individual stand out. Like socialization, identity too cannot be seen at face value. Identity has many layers to itself, and as we walk through life, each new layer keeps unfolding in front of us. Now, since we know what socialization and identity both mean, we can bring them together and relate them to answer our question does socialization lead to identity formation? Well, I think yes, socialization does lead to identity formation as we discover who we really are and where we fit in, only in the midst of people and in our interaction with them. Once we start interacting with the society, we learn so much about ourselves as well as about others (individuals or societies), their culture, customs, behaviour, etc. We learn that we are similar to some people, and different from others. Socialization makes an individual more confident. The more people we talk to, the more topics we talk about, and this in turn widens our scope. Also, we make ourselves more visible to society and hence people recognize us. Thus socialization helps in building ones identity. Todays world is all about power and identity. If one has an identity as well as the right attitude, he can achieve whatever h e wants. Socializing also leads to better networking. Better networking means more connections and more connections means higher opportunities at work or elsewhere as well. Hence socialization leads to a boost in ones career or talent and thus helps in identity formation. The more we interact with people, the more we discover ourselves and form judgements about ourselves as well as others. One is only able to discover his true self when he interacts with others and reacts in certain ways that are different from others. Everyone has a different and unique reaction to a certain situation. This uniqueness is what gives an individual his identity. For example, if we see Phillip Zimbardos Stanford Prison Study Experiment (Zimbardo, 1971), that was undertaken to study the behavioural and psychological consequences of becoming a prisoner or prison guard, we observe that the prisoners started to lose their identity, and didnt see it as an experiment, but as a real prison run by psychologist. They forgot that they were actually just college students and not actually prisoners. The prisoners actually gave up their freedom and forgot their rights and liberties. The situation was such that it made them feel that way. The environment was so realistic that they act ually believed they were prisoners and thus behaved in rebellion. It is the prisoners who created in the guards a sadistic impulse. The guards were compelled to act in ways that were totally opposite from what they were feeling inside. But few of the guards were actually cruel, and felt no guilt or regret while doing their job. They had completely lost themselves and started behaving in the role that was assigned to them, i.e. the role of a prison guard. The prisoners as well as the guards lost their true identity and became what the situation required them to be. The fresh prison routine, the privilege cell for the obedient ones and the hole for those who were punished, the clothes they were made to wear, the food they were made to eat, the number given to them by which they were now addressed, made them lose their true identity and become someone else. Thus, from this experiment we learn that situations affect us more than we think. What the volunteers in this experiment experienc ed was the power of the situation and not anything to do with their personality. Prisons are institutions which attempt to rid individuals of their previous identity, and this can be clearly seen in Zimbardos prison experiment. Another example is The Clark Doll Experiment (Clark, 1939) that was carried out by Dr. Kenneth Clark and his wife, where they asked black children to choose between a black doll and a white doll. Most of the children said the white doll was nicer, prettier and the one they preferred playing with, whereas the black doll was the bad doll. All these children were aged from 6 to 9 only and were already so damaged by racism at such a young age. This racism was due to the school segregation between white and black kids. It was distorting their minds, causing them to have stereotypes and hate themselves. When asked the last question of the experiment-which doll looks like you? the children hesitated and answered. They wanted to choose the white doll, but reluctantly pick the black one. Thus, prejudice, discrimination and segregation caused black children to develop a sense of inferiority and self hatred. These children were embarrassed of who they truly were, and hated themselves for being black. They wanted to be white like the other kids. Thus, they lost their identity at such a young age and in fact were ashamed of who they actually were. They preferred being someone else. Thus, socialization does lead to identity formation, and this identity formation starts at a young age itself. Even before children learn the basic dos and donts. So, it is very important to keep children away from bad influences and situations that can make them form bad judgements and ideas about themselves. Now, arguing against the motion, socialization leads to identity formation, I would completely disagree upon this statement. Identity is who we are and where we come from. We form our identity by how we behave, how our family has brought us up, what education we get, where our interests lie, etc. It is what we do and how we behave as individuals that form our identity and make us who we truly are. Socialization has nothing to do with identity formation. Socialization will not pour knowledge or talents into an individual; it will not build ones identity. It is important because we get to know more people, and get to widen our base. But it doesnt form who we are. It is we ourselves who from who we are, not the people around us. Primary and Tertiary socialization may lead to identity formation, but I can confidently say that Secondary socialization does not lead to identity formation. This can be proved by Paul Williss Learning to Labour: How Working Class Kids Get Working Class Jobs (Willis, 1977). In this study, we see that it is the family that gives the children their identity and even schooling could not change this identity. This is because the school did not teach them what they actually required in life and what they need to live life the way their society lives it. It is the students who distance themselves from the school culture and requirements, and develop their own counterculture. They are resistant to the schooling, and reject what the school offers to them. Willis finds that they are not less talented, but they do develop an antagonism towards the work hard move forward mentality of modern education, and develop what Willis terms as counter school culture (Willis, 1977). Thus, these children do not form a different identity that their school wants them to become. They stick to what their family has taught them and what their family requires them to be. Their family requires them to be labourers, who earn their living by hard work and labour, not by sitting on a desk and signing papers. Thus, these children reject the education and school culture that schooling is supposed to embed in a student, and prefer living life the way their family has been doing so, not because they want to, but because it is their duty, it is who they are and where they belong.

How Evil is Portrayed in Lord of the Flies by George Orwell Essay examp

How Evil is Portrayed in Lord of the Flies by George Orwell William Golding uses allegory in Lord of the Flies to portray the evil that is in people. An allegory is a story with an underlying meaning as well as a literal one. William Golding uses allegory on two levels in Lord of the Flies, one relating to World War Two that had just taken place when the book was written and another relating to Jesus Christ and the Garden of Eden. An important aspect of the novel is the time in which it was written, due to the Second World War ending. This means that Golding would have experienced and seen the cruelty and bitterness of man. William Golding had a theory as to why people do evil things. This was known as the 'original sin' or 'inner evil'. He believed that when you are born you have a certain amount of good and a certain amount of evil inside you. There are many characters that are protrayed as evil, one of which is Roger. Roger is pure evil, and only in the last four chapters does the reader discover this. Roger seems to be quite timid at the beginning of the story when he marches in with the choir. However, as the story progresses, Roger starts to show signs of evil escaping him. Roger could be compeared to satan in an allegorical level. He can be decribed as satan because of the number of evil acts which have been manufested by him. He also is the one who is solely responsible for the death of Piggy. Roger is described as a small boy with dirty and shaggy black hair, ' he was noticeably darker than when he had dropped in, but the shock of black hair down his nape and low on his forehead, seemed to suit his gloomy face and ma... ... portray evil in the Lord of the Flies, such as Roger, the 'scar' and the 'beastie'. At the end of the novel they are saved by a naval officer. The arrival of the naval officer thus seems like a happy and ironic ending, but if one digs deeper it is just a continuance from one war to another. Once all the boys get on the Navy cruiser, they'll most likely just be subjected to more battle and fighting, this time on a worldwide level, due to the war taking place in the outside world. Golding makes his views and messages of the 'darkness in mans heart' with this book, because it shows us what man is capable of if there was no social control. He has shown us that without these conditions, our ideals, values, and the basics of right and wrong are lost. Without society's rigid rules, anarchy and savagery can come to light.

Phytoliths and Archaeology; An Amazing Field That Never Gained Populari

Phytoliths are a durable floral microfossil formed by silica absorbed by a plant during its life. Although the usefulness of phytoliths in archaeology has been known for nearly a century, the field (independently) has not attained much popularity. Despite the fact that the yields of evidence and information from phytoliths are truly amazing, the field itself is at times more tedious than dendrochronology, causing a delay in the development of the use of phytoliths, as well as the lack of recognition. Phytoliths have been proven to be useful in a number of studies, ranging from paleo-environments, ancient agriculture, ancient technology, even the diet of particular cultures and their livestock. The largest problem with phytoliths tends to be the inability to identify certain phytoliths or the need to correlate the phytoliths with a different chronologies or reference collections. With all of the uses phytoliths have, these problems seem to be recurrent. However, in order to understan d the use of phytoliths, one must first come to a better understanding of what they are.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Numerous sources have different terms for phytoliths, and even go so far as to separate phytoliths into two groups (Schiffer 1983: 227). This is not the case in this paper. The term phytolith will refer to a general definition that is broad and encompasses both of these groups; a phytolith is an opal or silica plant cell (Rapp and Hill 1998: 93). No source is completely sure of the biological purpose of the silica in the plant cells. Phytoliths occur from silica in ground water being absorbed through plants roots and integrated into the living plant (Hertz and Garrison 1998: 55). This silica fills the spaces in the cell and hardens. These cells can endure long after the life of the plant, even through decay and burning (Renfrew and Bahn 2004: 249). However, phytoliths are susceptible to highly alkaline soils, erosion, corrosion, mechanical wear (ploughs) and water damage (Schiffer 1983: 234). The general cell morphology, as well as density and cell wall thickness can affect the durability of phytoliths (Schiffer 1983: 235). Phytoliths first were realized for their usefulness in 1908 by Schellenberg, who noticed phytoliths in archaeological soils from North Kurgan (Herz and Garrison 1998: 55), however it was not again recognized until the 1950’s with Helbaek’s and... ..., D.M., and M.K. Trimble. 1984 Identifying Past Agricultural Activity Through Soil Phytolith Analysis: A Case Study from the Hawaiian Islands. The Journal of Archaeological Science 11 (2): 119-131. Piperno, Dolores R. 1985 Phytolith Taphonomy and Distributions in Archaeological Sediments from Panama. The Journal of Archaeological Science 12 (4): 250-264. Piperno, Dolores R., and Deborah M. Pearsall. 1993 Phytoliths in the Reproductive Structures of Maize and Teosinte: Implications for the Study of Maize Evolution. The Journal of Archaeological Science 20 (3): 337-342. Powers, A.H, J. Padmore, and D.D Gilbertson. 1989 Studies of Late Prehistoric and Modern Opal Phytoliths from Coastal Sand Dunes and Machair in Northwest Britain. The Journal of Archaeological Science 16 (1) : 27-42. Renfrew, Colin and Paul Bahn. 2004 Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice. 4th ed. Thames and Hudson Ltd., London. Rip (Rapp), George Jr., and Christopher L. Hill. 1998 Geoarchaeology: The Earth-Science Approach to Archaeological Interpretation. Yale University Press, USA. Schiffer, Michael B. (editor) 1983 Advances in ARCHAEOLOGICAL METHOD AND PRACTICE vol. 6. Academic Press, New York.

What is sexting? Essay

In this age of technology and information, internet and mobile technology devices dominate our society (Burton, L, 2012, p.1), with over 90% of Australians aged 15-17 owning mobile phones (Australian Communications and Media Authority, 2010, â‚ ±4). Today’s teens are also overexposed to sexual content in many aspects of the media (Burton, L, 2012). This highly sexualised digital culture has transformed the way youth relate to one other (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). One phenomenon that has emerged from the increased accessibility of these devices and sexual exposure is the practice of ‘sexting’ (Society Pages, 2013, â‚ ±1). The term ‘sexting’ derives from merging the words ‘texting’ and ‘sex’ and â€Å"refers to the sending of sexually provocative material from modern communications devices† (Forde, L. & Hardley, S., 2011). ‘Sexting’ is currently receiving mass media attention (Walker, S., Sanci, L., & Temple-Smith, M., 2011). It is recognised as one of latest youth phenomena in popular culture (Funnell, N, 2012). Although the sharing of sexually explicit material is not a new concept, it has become simpler with the internet (Walker, S., Sanci, L., & Temple-Smith, M., 2011). Shared images â€Å"become part of a young person’s digital footprint, which may last forever and have the potential to damage future career prospects or relationships† (NSW Government, 2008, â‚ ±3.). The prevalence of sexting A national survey conducted in 2010 by the organisation Understanding Teenagers found that 59% of teenagers have electronically transmitted sexually suggestive material (Understanding Teenagers, 2010, â‚ ±3). In another survey conducted by the popular teen girl magazine Girlfriend found that 40% of 558 participants had been involved in sexting (Parliament of Victoria Law Reform Committee Sexting Inquiry (PVLRCSI), 2012). In Queensland alone, 459 sexting offences were reported in 2011 (PVLRCSI, 2012) and in Western Australia sexting offences have tripled in number from 2009 to 2011 (PVLRCSI, 2012). Research by American psychologist Andrew Smiler found various causes that attribute to sexting: to demonstrate commitment in a relationship, to impress friends, to harass or bully, or as a dare. According to an article in the Teacher Learning Network journal, In popular culture, sexting is seen as a young person’s phenomenon: mobile phones, raunch culture, a lack of inhibition, a lack of respect even a lack of morals are seen by many as the perfect storm that has created the sexting phenomenon.(Funnell, N, 2012). Looking at sexting through the lens of Sociological Theory Feminist Theory Sexting is recognised as a gender related issue because young girls feel pressure from the over-sexualised media to present themselves as sexually desirable. Similarly, young men have been conditioned to expect this behaviour. Sexting has created a mechanism for young people to actualize these expectations (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). It is understood that young girls are at greater risk of adverse effects than young men by this behaviour (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). Experts go as far as to claim â€Å"†¦the possibility of a link between sexting and gendered sexual violence targeting women† (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). Woman’s advocate, writer and speaker Melinda Tankard- Reist discusses in her DVD Too Sexy Too Soon that our society tells young girls their primary value is being on display sexually. Our society has created a culture where sexualisation of young girl is regarded as normal (Tutorial DVD). Jean Kilbourne and Diane Levin, authors of Sexy So Soon, argue: Boys are surrounded by media messages that encourage them to judge their female peers based on how they look, often to view them with contempt, and to expect sexual subservience from them (Burton, L., 2012). An interesting anecdote on the evolution of the women’s liberation movement from feminist Anne Manne reads: The relationship between women’s liberation and the new sexual freedom was never an uncomplicated one. The two movements have often been in tension. †¦ Jostling alongside welcome signs of women’s new-found status, and a more relaxed, tolerant, open and liberal society on sexual matters, many of the contours of the new sexual liberalism remain shaped by male dominance (as cited by Burton, L, 2012). Ms Manne (as cited in Butron, L, 2012) goes on to say that â€Å"along the way we  allowed ‘sexual liberation’ to be dictated to by pornography†. This view appears to be supported by many females reported in our media today. In the research paper Underage and Over- exposed Burton (2012) interviewed a young girl who said, Look at most girls’ role models. Most celebrities are just out there at parties, getting drunk and having sex with everyone. Paris Hilton – as much as she is a bad role model to us, she is always in the newspapers and stuff like that so younger generations will be influenced by he. There are also the recent antics of child star Miley Cyrus and her almost pornographic performances at the VMA Music awards in September and her raunchy new film clip for hit single Wrecking Ball. Symbolic Interaction Theory  Symbolic interactionists focus on how communication is central to all human interaction and how these interactions create society (Carl, J & Baker, S, 2011). This theory would view sexting as youth exercising their power to create society. These youth are developing their own standards of what is normal and acceptable behaviour (Carl, J & Baker, S, 2011). Youth consider sexting an adult or media-generated concept (University of New South Wales, 2013, p.1). Youth do not call this activity sexting, but refer to such behaviour as taking noodz, naked selfies, dirty pics or sexy pics (The University of Melbourne, 2012). However, although this creativity and individualism may be acceptable within subgroups, such as the youth subculture, on a macro level it often conflicts with the norm (The University of Melbourne, 2012). Symbolic Interactionist Chafetz argues that men and woman communicate differently: men tend to dominate conversation and woman follow arbitrary rules that men impose. She says â€Å"Women use body language in ways that weaken their ability to assert themselves, this makes them appear less powerful than their male counterparts† (Chafetz, 1997 as cited in Carl & Hillman, 2011 p. 86). Men and woman often act in a default manner associated with stereotyped gender roles. For example, woman use body language and gestures, or in this case nude images, whereas men tend to be more direct displaying their masculinity  by demanding these pictures from their female counterparts (Carl & Hillman, 2011). Sexting is a good example of the manifestation of how an individual’s definition of gender develops from everyday interactions (Chafetz 1997 as cited in Carl & Hillman, 2011). In today’s society, we are flooded with sexually explicit material and people appear desensitised. Psychologist Andrew Smiler stated A porn aesthetic pervades culture – in fashion, music, entertainment and behaviour. This is evident in the billboards, music videos and designer stores that shape the desires and imaginations of a younger and younger demographic. It is not just that culture has become more sexualised. It is that the imagery of the pornographic erotic has shaped the sexualisation of culture. (Smiler, A as cited in Burton, L, 2012). Research conducted by Hewlett Packard found that what is communicated visually has more impact than any other form of communication. Their research supports the idea that visual communication can be more powerful than verbal communication, suggesting in many instances that people learn and retain information that is presented to them visually much better than that which is only provided verbally (Hewlett Parkard, 2004, â‚ ±1). Sexual images are everywhere, often without words, and are creating a whole new set of community values. These images are encouraging our young people’s sexual exploration and thus reinforcing the behaviour of sexting. Australian Institute researcher Flood stated that the â€Å"‘regular and frequent exposure to sexual content in mainstream media produces greater sexual knowledge and more liberal sexual attitudes among children and young people†. Although the media operate at the macro level their influence permeates through to a micro level, thus influencing the way individuals communicate. Symbolic interaction provides a useful explanation of how the sub-culture of sexting has developed. Effects of Sexting Social and Emotional Youth are readily involved in this activity but are naà ¯ve as to its consequences. According to Goodings and Everaardt (2010) as cited in of  the Parliament of Victoria Law Reform Committee Sexting Inquiry (PVLRCSI)), 2013 the â€Å"social ramifications can be the most damaging when it comes to sexting†. The case of Jessica Logan an 18 year old student in America demonstrates the dangers of sexting. The images she sent to her boyfriend were later distributed to hundreds of people and ultimately ended in her suicide (Forde, L. & Hardley, S., 2011). Although most cases are not as extreme as Jessica’s, the mass distribution of these images is common. There are many other detrimental physiological, emotional and social (Goodings and Everaardt (2010) as cited in the Parliament of Victoria Law Reform Committee Sexting Inquiry (2012). Sexting is a dangerous activity and unfortunately â€Å"the viral spread of these images and the associated shame have reportedly led to social, psychological and legal consequences for victims† (Katzman, 2010). Legal Owing to the rapidity of technological development, practices such as sexting are not adequately covered by Australian law. This is known as ‘cultural lag’(J, Carl, S Baker, Scott, Hillman & Larwrence, 2011). Young people who send and receive sexually explicit images may find themselves in serious trouble under various state and Commonwealth child pornography laws. One specific piece of legislation is Part 10.6 of the Commonwealth Criminal Code Act 1995, which makes it â€Å"an offence to access, transmit, publish, possess, control, supply or obtain child pornography† (Forde, L. & Hardley, S., 2011). Furthermore in Queensland, those being convicted of child pornography may also be added to the Sex Offenders Register. Sexting also falls under the category of sexual harassment under S28A of the Commonwealth Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Forde, L. & Hardley, S, 2011). These laws are designed to protect children from the abuse of adults and many agree that they are ill suited to the issue of youth sexting each other (Forde, L. & Hardley, S, 2011). Those working with children would need to be aware that if they confiscate a data storage device containing such images, or if such images are stored on a school device, material they can also be charged (Forde, L. & Hardley, S, 2011). My Role As a youth worker I would be involved at a grassroots level in mentoring and supporting of youth involved in this practice. I would also want to be involved in sex education classes. According to experts it is vital to include youth’s opinions and ideas if effective solutions are to be found (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011, p.8). As a youth worker I need to facilitate this and make sure that youth are given this voice. Christian Youth Work Perspective Adolescence is a time of life where humans are forming their identity (PBS, 2011, â‚ ±1). Young people are searching for truth, purpose and belonging. Many youth do not have any authority in their life instructing them on how to build and maintain healthy relationships and therefore are more likely to be involved in risky relationships (Burton, L, 2012) Christian youth workers and chaplains have a great opportunity to be in schools educating youth on topics such as identity, purpose and healthy relationships. As a Christian youth worker I want youth to find their true identity in Christ and that they ultimately belong to him. This truth is the most empowering knowledge any human can have and it answers these questions of identity, truth and purpose. Christian Evaluation From a Christian perspective the act of sexting would be seen as sexually immoral behaviour and thus frowned upon because it would contain images that would be considered pornographic. There are countless references to such behaviour in the Bible to support this. In 1 Corinthians 6:18 Paul writes; Flee from sexual immorality. All other sins a person commits are outside the body, but whoever sins sexually, sins against their own body. Do you not know that your bodies are temples of the Holy Spirit, who is in you, whom you have received from God? You are not your own; you were bought at a price. Therefore honor God with your bodies (NIV). Paul reiterates the sin of sexual immorality in 1 Thessalonians 4:3-7; It is God’s will that you should be sanctified: that you should avoid sexual immorality; that each of you should learn to control your own body in a way that is holy and honorable†¦ The Lord will punish all those who commit such sins, as we told you and warned you before. For God did not call us to be impure, but to live a holy life (NIV). The message version of Ephesians 5:1-4 provides an excellent example of how healthy relationships are important and without good understanding of them people fall into the trap of immoral behaviour. Watch what God does, and then you do it, like children who learn proper behavior from their parents. Mostly what God does is love you. Keep company with him and learn a life of love. Observe how Christ loved us. His love was not cautious but extravagant. He didn’t love in order to get something from us but to give everything of himself to us. Love like that. Don’t allow love to turn into lust, setting off a downhill slide into sexual promiscuity, filthy practices, or bullying greed. Though some tongues just love the taste of gossip, those who follow Jesus have better uses for language than that. Don’t talk dirty or silly. That kind of talk doesn’t fit our style. Thanksgiving is our dialect. However, it is not the role of Christians to judge the youth involved in this behaviour, but to encourage them to change this behaviour because it is dangerous. The role of Church should be to promote healthy relationships and demonstrate Christ’s love. Recommendations A community approach is needed if sexting is to be effectively reduced. Parents and the education system need to work together with the youth in order to tackle this issue (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). The problem could be addressed through: 1. Sex education classes that include advice on (a) the development of healthy relationships, (b) the dangers of sexting and (c) sexual morality and self-image (PVLRCSI, 2012, p.8&9) and (Funnell, N, 2012). 2. Providing seminars for guidance officers, counsellors and chaplains in schools to assist them in addressing this issue with their students (PVLRCS, 2012). 3. Incorporating the voice of youth into the attempts to address the issue of sexting (Walker. S., Sanci, L. & Temple-Smith, M, 2011). 4. Schools providing education for parents on the issue of sexting. This should include, (a) the various consequences of sexting, (b) the legal ramifications and (c) how they can impose restrictions on technology more effectively (PVLRCS2012, 2012). 5. Providing a government community service announcement on this issue be, e.g. a television advertisement campaign. 6. Updating the law need to address sexting appropriately. 7. Conducting further research on the topic. Reference List Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA). (2010) ‘Trends in media use by children and youth: Insights from the Kaiser Family Foundation’s Generation. Retrieved 22 August 2013 from, Burton, L. (2012). Underage and overexposed: Discussing pornography and raunch culture with students. Screen Education, Autumn No. 58, 58-70. Carl, J & Baker, S. (2011). Think Sociology. J.D. Baker, S. Baker, B. Robards, J. Scott, W. Hillman & G. Lawrence (Eds.) (pp.22-23). French Forrest NSW: Pearson Australia. Forde, L . & Hardley, V. (2011). Sexting: The legal implications. The National Education Magazine, June Edition, 56-59. Funnell, N. (2012). Sexting: Male and female – it’s on for young and old. Teachers Learning Network, 19 (2), 37-39. Hewlett Packard (2004). The power of visual communication [PDF file]. Retrieved 18 September 2013, from http://www.hp.com/large/ipg/assets/bus-solutions/power-of-visual-communication.pdf Katzman, D.K. (2010), ‘Sexting: Keeping teens safe and responsible in a technologically savvy world’. Paediatric Child Health, 15(1), 41-2. New South Wales (NSW) Government. (2008)Safe sexting: ‘No such thing’ information sheet for parents. Retrieved 23 August 2013 from, http//www.schools.nsw.edu.au. Parliament of Victoria Law Reform Committee on Sexting Inquiry. (2012). Sexting in Australia: The legal and social ramifications. Retrieved 22 August 2013, from ttp://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/lawrefrom/isexting/subs/S07_-_Salvation_Army_Oasis_Hunter.pdf PBS. (2011). Identity formation. Retrieved 7 September 2013, from http://www.pbs.org/thisemotionallife/topic/adolescence/identity-formation Tankard-Reist, M (Tutorial DVD) The Society Pages. (2013). Youth, technology and the ‘problem’of sexting [PDF file]. Retrieved 22 August 2013, from http://thesocietypages.org/sociologylens/2013/04/20/young-people-technology-a

Faunia Farley – The Human Stain

Besides Coleman Silk, the major character of The Human Stain. By my own opinion, the most interesting charatcer too. She started off as a rich privileged kid who, at the age of 14, had been struck by the worst thing that can happen to a girl at the very edge of her puberty – having a spoiled mother who cared more about the money than for her own daughetr, Faunia had to face an abusing stepfather who found her chilish innocence and beauty too powerful sexual bate to endure. Running away at such early and immature years of her life and staying completely alone and protected only by clear sky and an empty wallet, she had been forced to put up with the worst kind of jobs and worst kind of men that could possibly be found. In her case, these jobs and men seemed to find her more quickly than she found anything else herself. Waitressing in Florida, a 17-year old Faunia is even thinking about becoming a prostitute –  «for a skinny blonde with big tits, a tall, good-looking kid like her with hustle and ambition and guts, got up in miniskirt, a halter, and boots, a thousand bucks a night would be nothing » (p. 160). After a series of not-nice boyfriend who beat her up until she screamed for her life, she finnaly cought up with a neatly–looking guy, this Lester Farley, who seemed to be a guy in his place. She even dared to think her miseries were over and dream about a peaceful life with her husband and a farm on which they could build a life toghether. She was wrong. Les Farley had turned out to be the next worst thing that happened – a Vietnam vet with PTSD and a drinking problem, used her as his punching bag whenever he got drunk and mistakenly thought he was back in Nam and that she was one of the  «gooks » from the jungle. Too often was she awakened by his cold hands firmly gripping her throat (p. 53). But she didn't hate him, she wasn't even too scared of him, she felt sorry for him more than anything. In one of his hard alchohol episodes, she managed to get him to rehab, took their two children, Rawley and Les Junior, and more for theirs sake than her own's, she escaped him. But the problems didn't stop. Getting out of the rehab, Les started to stock her. One night, while she had been with another man in a car, the house where kids slepti was caught in fire and both of them died. Even though there was no evidence of it, she knew it was Les who did it. But it didn't matter. Children's death haunted her and she blamed herself so harshly that she even wanted Les to  «kill her once and for all » (p. 246. ). But  «amazing how nobody's done it yet to the dead children's mother » – she thinks and decides to do something about it herself. She drank Valiu and gin and suffered a clinical death for several minutes, but some fortune, or misfortune, wouldn't let her go (p. 245). Disappointed in everything about herself and determined to end her miseries, she buys carbon-monoxide powder and attepmpts a suicide once again. And once again, her luck slapped her in the face and kept her alive (p. 246. .  «OK, if this is how you wanna play, that's how we're gonna play », Faunia says to some force greater and stronger than human will that played tricks on her her entire life. Accepting everything that had happened and everything that was yet to come, she continues her life with a special kind of wisdom –  «narrow, antisocial, savage and negative, but a wisdom of somebody who expects nothing » (p. 28). Starting to work on a milk farm, in a post office and as a janitor at Athena colledge, she puts a mask over her face and continues to get involved with wrong men in wrong kinds of relationships based mainly on sex. And exactly sex is her power over men. This 34-year-old thin and tall illiterate woman with graying blond hair, firm limbs and breasts, had a look of someone for whom both sex and betrayal are as basic as bread » (p. 50. ). In bed she is  «powerful, coherent, unified being whose pleasure is in overstepping the boundaries. In bed she is a deep phenomenon » (p. 31). After being a part of Smoky Hollenback's sexual triangle, she starts an affair with a 71-year-old Coleman Silk, ex-dean of Athena colledge. He is different from all the other guys that she ever had a bad luck to know, but nonetheless all she wants of him is  «a non-pressure bang, once a week, on the sly, with a man who's been through it all and is nicely cooled out.  » (p. 40). She plays her role, she satisfies him like no other woman ever before, sho doesn't want anything else from him, no expectations, no feelings, no true relationship, she's becoming his Voluptas. And when  «she knows it's happening: that thing, that connection » between them, when she dances for him and  «making him fall in love with her » she says to him:  «We've got all we need. We don't need love. Don't diminish yourself – don't reveal yourself as a sentimental sap. You're dying to do it, but don't. Let's not lose this.  » (p. 231). She knows she's driving him nuts, she knows that her rejection of his feelings makes him want to attach to her sentimentaly even more. She dances for him and teaches him what life really is. She – a 34-year-old illiterate janitor, teaches him – colledge proffessor, ex-dean, a member of highest rank of society class, what life is all about. He's never seen her dance like this, he's never heard her talking like this. Been so long since she talked like this, she'd have thought she'd forgotten how. So very long in hiding. Nobody heard her talking like this. This is not the usual way she entertained men (p. 231. /232). Women who fuck like she does aren't supposed to talk like this – at least that's what the men who don't fuck women like her like to think. That's what the women who don't fuck like her like to think.  «That's what everyone likes to think – stupid Faunia, she says. Well, let 'em. My pleasure. Yes, stupid Faunia has been paying attention. How else does stupid Faunia get through? Being stupid Faunia – that's my achievement, that's me at my most sensible best.  » (p. 233. ) Two of them being so similar and yet so different at the same time. Faunia, who never had anything only hers except bad luck and still never complaining about anything, never shed a single tear over the wreck of her life she is still in a way forced to live and Coleman who  «really thinks his suffering is so life-shattering. It's a lot of assholes not liking him – it's not a big deal. Two kids suffocating and dying, that's a big deal. Having your stepfather put his fingers up your cunt, that's a big deal. Losing your job as you're about to retire isn't a big deal. That's what she hates about him – the privilegedness of his suffering.  » (p. 234. ). But even as she knows all she hates, she knows what she likes. His generosity. So rare for her to be anywhere near anyone's generosity. And the strenght that comes frome being a man who doesn't swing a pipe at her head. She even admitted him she was smart. He listened to her and she was smart. He listens to her and he's loyal to her. He doesn't reproach her for anything. He doesn't plot against her in any way. He takes her seriously. That's sincere. (p. 237. ). This is maybe the only time in all her life she felt good about something, about someone. Felt protected. Felt considered. Maybe even felt loved. Maybe even she felt love towards him. And are these the things you can run away from? A total accident – her last and only lucky accident, and why does she run away? Does she really want to go back to what it was before him? (p. 237. ). No, she doesn't. So she doesn't do that. She's with him till the very end. Death came in a moment when she never wanted it less. In all her life, filled mostly with thoughts about leaving the world, the human race, and all the mseries behid, she never wanted death less. So who is this strong and determined woman? This woman who despiesed human race so much that her best companion for conversation had been a crow and she could be true only to it? This character so complex in all her simplicity? This woman who fooled the world and played the trick on everyone like no one else in such an unexpected way – so simple that it's almost unbelievable? Who chose to wear a mask of illiteracy and promiscuicity becouse she felt she couldn't stand a chance any other way? She's  «the kid whose existence became a hallucination at 7 and a catastrophe at 14 and a disaster after that. The kid who mistrust everyone, sees the con in everyone, and yet is protected against nothing, whose capacity to hold on, unintimidated, is enormous and yet whose purchase on life is minute, misfortune's favourite embattled child, the kid to whom everything loathsome that can happen has happened and whose luck shows no sign of changing.  » (p. 164. ). She's  «the woman who doesn't want to own everything. The woman who doesn't want to own anything. Helen of Nowhere. Helen of Nothing.  »

Basic Computer Memory Types Essay

Random Access Memory (RAM) RAM is a location within the computer system which is responsible for stacking away data on a temporary basis, so that it can be promptly accessed by the processor. The information stored in RAM is typically loaded from the computer’s hard disk, and includes data related to the operating system and certain applications. When the system is switched off, RAM loses all the stored information. The data remains stored and can be retained only when the system is running. When the RAM gets full, the computer system is more likely to operate at a slow peed. The data can be retrieved in any random order. Generally, there are two types of RAM; namely Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM). When many programs are running on the computer simultaneously, the virtual memory allows the computer to search in RAM for memory portions which havent been utilized lately and copy them onto the hard drive. This action frees up RAM space and enables the system to load different programs. Read Only Memory (ROM) This type of memory is active, regardless of whether the system is turned on or is switched off. It is a kind of permanent non-volatile storage memory. As the name ‘read only’ suggests, the contents in it cannot be changed or modified. It is an integrated circuit which is pre-programmed with important data that should necessarily be present for the computer to carry out its normal functionalities. Cache Cache is a kind of RAM which a computer system can access more responsively than it can in regular RAM. The central processing unit looks up in the cache memory before searching in the central memory storage area to determine the information it requires. This rules out the need for the system to search for information in larger and bigger memory storage areas, which in turn leads to a faster extraction of data. Computer Hard Drive These devices are important data storage components that are installed in the CPL]. Their memory ranges widely, and a user may choose the memory depending on the data needed to be stored and accessed. Nowadays, hard drives having a memory capacity of 120 gigabytes to 500 gigabytes are normally used. Flash Memory This is a non-volatile kind of memory which is intended to contribute to portable torage and a convenient transfer of data from one computer to another. The data in it can be erased and re-programmed as per the user’s requirements. It only has a specific number of erase and write cycles that it can withstand, after which it creates a tendency to lose out on the stored information. Memory cards and USB flash drives These are Just the common and main computer memory types which facilitate memory and data storage. However, there are many subtypes which are sorted out according to the memory-related functionalities they perform and the requirements they serve.

Elections in Africa Essay

The Aim of this essay is based on the clarity on the Elections in Africa if they are a good Measure of democracy. It basically analyses the advantages and disadvantages of elections (in an argument form). The issue of how citizens influence policymaker is central to an understanding of democratic political system. We normally agree that democracy should allow the people to participate in policy making. Hence elections are one of the ways to establish connections between citizens and policy makers and by elections citizens encourage the policymakers to pay attention to their interests. However there are some disagreements about whether and how elections serve to link citizens to policymakers; a number of schools put more emphasis upon accountability and others do on representativeness, even if there have been a lot of theoretical debates about this issue, we have few attempts to test the role of competitive election on popular attitudes towards the legislature. An election is a formal decision making process in which the population chooses an individual to hold a public office. Elections have been the mechanism by which modern representative democracy has been operated since 17TH century. According to Business Dictionary (BD), Election is the act of a party casting vote to choose an individual, for some type of position. It may involve a public or private vote depending on the position. Most positions in the local, state federal governments are voting on the same type of elections. According to (Abraham Lincoln), the word democracy means â€Å"the government of the people, by the people and for the people â€Å". Democracy is term that comes from a Greek and it is made up of two other words, demo which means people and kratain which means to govern or to rule. Democracy can then be literally translated by the following terms, Government of the people or government of the majority. Electoral systems are conventionally divided into two categories, majoritarian. And proportional representations, (Lijphart 1999). Majoritarian system usually employs exclusively single-seat distrust with plurality rule and tends to give greater representation to the two parties and that which receive the most votes. Proportional representation (P.R) System must employ multi-seat districts, usually with party lists, and typically produce parliamentary representation that largely mirrors the vote shares of multi-parties However elections be it Proportional Representation (PR), or Majoritarian type, are instruments of democracy to the degree that they give the people the  influence over policymaking,.(Powell 2000). One fundamental role of elections is the evaluation of the incumbents government. Citizens use elections to reward or punish the incumbents although on the other hand increasingly competitive elections raise the risk of increased election violence, this can be raised in two ways. Firstly, closer elections can increase tension throughout the electoral process; when the outcome of the election is in doubt, all stages of the process including the appointment of the members of the electoral management body, the registration of parties, candidates, and voters; campaigning; voting ;and vote counting and tabulation, becomes more heated. For example, Kenya erupted in chaos in 2007 when incumbent president Mwai kibaki was sworn in hours after being declared the winner in the country’s closest presidential elections ever; the ensuing violence left 1,500 dead and 300,000 displaced. Secondly, as long-term incumbents witness the growing strength of the opposition candidates, they may feel increasingly imperilled and crack down more fiercely on perceived threats, example, after losing the first round of Zimbabwe’s 2008 presidential elections and subsequently manipulating results to force run-off, president Robert Mugabe presided over a wave of widespread and brutal violence against supporters of Morgan Tsvangirai to ensure himself victory in the second round. While these above examples demonstrate the potential of elections to create conflict, elections are often used as a means to end conflict and solidify peace. For this reason, elections usually form a key part of the agreements ending civil wars or conflict. The basic principal behind these post conflict or transitional elections is that of Ballots over Bullets: citizens choosing their political leaders by voting rather than fighting, although in the 1992 Angola elections which was intended to end the c ivil war, this election instead reignited conflict for another ten (10) years. cases such as these have led many to argue that elections are not appropriate for post conflict environment. In majority, however, there is no viable alternative to post conflict elections as a means of achieving legitimate governance; a non elected government is far more susceptible to accusations of illegitimacy than the one chose by the people, and legitimate governance must be achieved as soon as possible following a conflict. Moreover, elections have the potential to create government broadly representative of all disputing political factions. Demonstratively, several  countries have recently held remarkably successful post-conflict elections. For example, Liberia’s elections in 2005 intended to over a decade of civil war were remarkably peaceful and hailed as generally free and fair. Another example is the DRC’s 2006 elections, the first multi-party election in 46 years, were also relatively successful, especially when considering the tremendous logistical challenges that had to be overcome. in these cases therefore, elections facilitated an ongoing transition from dev astating conflict toward greater stability and development. Based on a multi-level analysis of Afro barometer survey data from 17 sub-Saharan African countries, the study examines the influence of these two types of electoral systems; Majoritarian and Proportional Representations-on popular confidence in African parliaments. Controlling for a variety of individual and macro-level characteristics, it was found that citizen’s perceptions of Members of Parliament (MP’s) representations have a positive and significant effect on their trust in legislature. In addition the results suggest that the effect of political representations is mediated by electoral systems. Powell (2000), distinguishes between two versions of elections as instruments of democracy; accountability and representation. Accountability model tries to use elections to bring the power of the people directly to bear on policymakers. Elections offer citizens a periodic opportunity to change the policymakers. Citizens will have control because they will be able, at least occasionally to reject elected officials who are doing the wrong. Competitive elections create a pressure on all incumbents or rather the current policymakers to worry about the next elections and make policy with voters review in mind. On the other hand representation model emphasises citizens should be treated equally at the decisive stage of public policy making. Elections are instruments of citizen’s influence in policy making. Elections should create equitable reflection of all points of view into the legislature. They work as an instrument to choose representatives who can bargain for their voter’s interest in post-election policy making. Elections are not only integral to all these areas of democratic governance, but are also the most visible representations of democracy in action. They are also in most cases the most complicated and expensive single event a country will ever undertake. Good governance, upholding rule of law, and supporting civil society, this testimony examines  all these areas in the context of elections. International support to electoral processes is crucial if democracy is to continue developing on the African continent. Indeed the very purpose of elections is to achieve participatory governance without violence- through political rather than physical competition –and this has succeeded in a number of African countries. South-Africa and Botswana, for example have proven themselves among the continent’s most stable democracies, while Ghana, Mali, and Benin have emerged as democratic stronghold in West Africa. Moreover, countries such as Sierra Leone and Liberia, among the poorest in the world and only recently emerged from civil war, have demonstrated the power of elections to foster and solidify peace. In reality, then, Africa’s experience with the electoral democracy has been mixed; progress has been made but challenges remain. The various elections in past several years-from Kenya and Zimbabwe to Ghana and Sierra Leone- have become historical landmarks for different reasons, varying drastically in their conduct and outcome. This mix of electoral experience has generated considerable debate and passion on the subject of transparent, free and fair electoral process among election stakeholders, especially as democratic progress itself can come with further challenges; as more elections are held as these elections become increasingly competitive, one-party and military regimes face potentially destabilizing challenges that could increase the risk of fraud and violence. In conclusion; elections-especially free and fair, competitive and multi-party elections, are assumed to be a critical component of democratization in emerging democracies, while an election can intensify the polarization of a society along ethnic lines. Competitive elections can force political elites to legitimate their rule through the ballot box. However, we are still debating about how elections serve to link voters and elected Officials. While a group of scholars emphasise the directness and clarity of the connection between voters and policy-makers, others do the representation of all factions in society. Elections help voters to send Members of Parliament (MP’s) representing their interest to the parliament, to some extent elections constitutes a principal avenue of citizen’s involvement in political life. Understanding their effects on public attitudes towards the legislature and the role of the individual  therein has important implications for theories of democratic governance in emerging democracy. Therefore with this information, elections are a good measure of democracy in that they give citizens the participatory right in policy making through their elected representatives. Making it the government of the people by the people and for the people, that’s democracy according to Abraham Lincolnâ €™s definition. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Powell (2000), Elections as instrument of Democracy. 2. 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